Navigating the Zeitgeist - Introducing Fakafekauaga - Servantship as the Fourth Archetype

By Falalahemotu Makapatama and Makapatama Founders and Leveki – Guardians and Stewards of Fakafekauaga-Servantship, FakaFekauaga Catalyst (FFC).

Kamataaga - Introduction

In the evolving landscape of business and societal transformation, understanding the prevailing spirit of the times—often referred to as the "zeitgeist"—is crucial for effectively addressing contemporary challenges. The seminal work Zeitgeist Leadership by Anthony J. Mayo and Nitin Nohria (2005) stresses the importance of contextual intelligence for leaders, illustrating how the ability to discern and adapt to the zeitgeist has shaped leadership effectiveness throughout history. Their insights offer a guiding framework for navigating today’s rapidly changing world.

Mayo and Nohria emphasise that a leader’s success is deeply linked to their ability to read and respond to the zeitgeist, which encompasses the shifting spirit of the times influencing societal and organisational expectations. This concept is increasingly relevant in our complex era, marked by pressing issues such as social and economic inequity, climate change and poverty, which demand innovative approaches beyond traditional paradigms.

While Mayo and Nohria identify three distinct archetypes—entrepreneur, manager and leader—each representing different strengths suited to various historical contexts, the current era calls for a broader perspective. The limitations of these traditional models become apparent when addressing the multifaceted challenges, we face today.

In this context, we introduce Fakafekauaga - Servantship as a fourth archetype, not as an extension or part of these three archetypes, but as a distinct and novel approach outside traditional leadership roles. Deeply rooted in Niuean culture, Fakafekauaga is a philosophy that emphasises servantship, interconnectedness and stewardship of human and environmental resources. Rather than fitting within the conventional leadership framework, Fakafekauaga represents a holistic approach that addresses the complexities of our modern world. This tohi (article) explores how Fakafekauaga serves as a transformative paradigm, offering an alternative to the established archetypes and providing insights into navigating contemporary challenges.

Contextual Intelligence: Beyond Traditional Archetypes

In Mayo and Nohria's analysis, the concept of contextual intelligence highlights the vital connection between a leader's success and their ability to adapt to the prevailing zeitgeist. This principle remains crucial in our dynamic era, where leadership must navigate unprecedented challenges. However, while contextual intelligence is essential, the traditional archetypes of entrepreneur, manager and leader, as outlined by Mayo and Nohria, may fall short in addressing the complexities we face today.

The power of contextual intelligence lies not just in understanding and adapting to the zeitgeist but in recognising its limitations within conventional frameworks. The rapidly evolving nature of contemporary issues—such as climate change, social inequity and technological disruption—demands a more nuanced approach than what traditional archetypes alone can offer. 

Jack Welch: A Case in Point

Jack Welch’s tenure at GE exemplifies the application of contextual intelligence. His leadership style was notably aligned with the zeitgeist of the late 20th century, marked by rapid technological advancements and global competition. Welch's approach, characterised by aggressive restructuring and a focus on efficiency, addressed the specific needs of GE during that era. However, his methods, while effective then, may not necessarily provide a blueprint for tackling today's multifaceted challenges.

The relevance of Welch’s example illustrates the broader point: contextual intelligence must evolve beyond the scope of traditional leadership archetypes to encompass a more holistic understanding of contemporary issues. Welch's success demonstrates the importance of aligning leadership with the zeitgeist, but it also highlights the necessity of integrating broader frameworks, such as Fakafekauaga, which offer more comprehensive solutions to today’s complex problems.

To navigate the current zeitgeist effectively, leaders must integrate contextual intelligence with a paradigm that transcends traditional archetypes. Fakafekauaga, with its emphasis on interconnectedness, collective well-being and holistic stewardship, provides a robust framework that complements and extends beyond the insights offered by Mayo and Nohria. This approach addresses the limitations of conventional models by incorporating a deeper understanding of systemic interconnections and cultural contexts.

Traditional Archetypes of Leadership

Central to Mayo and Nohria's thesis are the three distinct leadership archetypes: the entrepreneur, the manager and the leader. Each archetype possesses unique strengths and abilities tailored to the demands of their respective epochs. Entrepreneurs are visionaries, adept at seizing nascent opportunities and forging new paths. Managers are masters of contextual understanding, skilfully navigating the ever-shifting terrain of business landscapes. Leaders, meanwhile, possess the rare gift of discerning latent potential in seemingly stagnant enterprises, breathing new life into them amidst change.

As Mayo and Nohria surmised, "time and time again, the American capitalist system has borne witness to this business life cycle and it is the ongoing regeneration of this pattern that ultimately sustains development and progress."

Mayo and Nohria’s exploration of zeitgeist leadership has provided valuable insights into how business leadership has evolved to meet the demands of its time. Their analysis of different historical periods highlights how each era has been characterised by its own unique leadership archetypes, aligning well with the prevailing challenges and opportunities of those periods. These insights offer a clear understanding of how traditional archetypes of management, leadership and entrepreneurship have effectively addressed the needs of their respective eras.

However, as we navigate the complexities of our current era, marked by profound challenges such as social and economic inequity, climate change and poverty, it becomes evident that the traditional archetypes alone may not fully address the multifaceted nature of these issues. The zeitgeist of our time necessitates an approach that transcends conventional frameworks, calling for a paradigm that integrates holistic and transformative principles. This is where the philosophy of Fakafekauaga comes into play, offering a comprehensive framework that aligns with the demands of our contemporary context.

As a guide to you, the readers, instead of fitting Fakafekauaga into the existing framework of leadership archetypes, it is essential to recognise it as an independent paradigm. Fakafekauaga stands apart from these traditional archetypes. Rooted in Niuean culture, it offers a distinct perspective that emphasises collective well-being, interconnectedness and holistic stewardship of both human and environmental resources. It provides a transformative framework that addresses the limitations of conventional leadership models and aligns with the complexities of the modern world.

Introducing a New Archetype: Fakafekauaga

"My husband and I are excited to introduce a new era for Fakafekauaga: Servantship has arrived."

As we reflect and look back and into the future of leadership archetypes, our exploration extends beyond conventional paradigms to embrace the transformative power of collective dynamics. Within this realm of reimagining archetypes like leadership, one archetype emerges as a beacon of great societal impact: Fakafekauaga, rooted in the ethos of servantship.

Derived from Niuean culture, Fakafekauaga embodies a village philosophy deeply ingrained in the potu (woven mat) of village-communal existence. It transcends mere service, encompassing a holistic way of being that harmonises with the interconnectedness of human relationships, spirituality and survival imperatives, all dedicated to advancing the greater good of individuals, villages and the planet.

Defined as

"Ko e taofiaga faka-maaga, ko e puhala he moui kua fakave ke he fakafekau, matu-taki-aga faka-agaaga mo e moui-olaola; he tagata, maaga moe lalolagi katoatoa."

 "A village philosophy and way of being; rooted in service, interconnectedness, spirituality and survival, dedicated to advancing the greater good of individuals, villages and the planet"

At its essence, Fakafekauaga is a composite of Five Core Human Characteristics, each weaving together to form a beautiful potu or a hiapo (barkcloth) of village values, principles and rituals all aligned to serving the greater good of people, village and our planet:

Matutakiaga.   This concept and word have several meanings – interconnectedness, relational, thinking as a system & systems evolution: 

• Anchored in the understanding of interconnectedness, Matutakiaga accentuates the love, care and responsibilities of relationships spanning families, villages and ecosystems. It invokes a sense of stewardship, urging individuals to nurture and preserve the delicate balance of nature for future generations' well-being.

Mahuiga. This concept and word have several meanings – values-based, ancestral knowledge and lived experience:

• Rooted in humility, respect, collectivism, gratitude, love and servantship, Mahuiga epitomises a values-based life. It celebrates the power of collaboration and village-community while fostering harmonious and purposeful living within the collective.

Fakalofa. This concept and word have several meanings - love, compassion and empathy: 

• At its core, Fakalofa embodies the transformative power of love and compassion, extending its embrace to encompass all facets of village-communal existence. It inspires selfless service and upliftment, fostering a sustainable and harmonious coexistence.

Fakamokoi - Reciprocity – give and forget but receive and remember always: 

• Grounded in the spirit of generosity and interconnectedness, Fakamokoi transcends mere transactions to embody a generational sense of reciprocal giving and receiving. It underlines the responsibility towards the well-being of both human village-communities and the natural environment.

Matohiaga - Genealogy – contextualised – past, present and future: 

• Serving as a conduit of ancestral wisdom, Matohiaga reminds us of our interconnectedness across generations. It calls upon us to honour and integrate the wisdom of our tupuna (ancestors) into our lives, ensuring the legacy of sustainability and resilience for future generations.

Contextual Intelligence and Fakafekauaga Philosophy

Contextual intelligence—the ability to understand and effectively respond to complex and dynamic environments—aligns deeply with the Fakafekauaga philosophy and the Niuean village way of life. This philosophy, grounded in interconnectedness and relational dynamics, naturally incorporates contextual intelligence into its core human characteristics and practices.

In exploring contextual intelligence as outlined by Mayo and Nohria, Fakafekauaga offers a robust cultural framework that embodies this concept through two of its Five Core Human Characteristics: Matutakiaga and Matohiaga. These characteristics reflect an intrinsic understanding of context that is integral to Niuean cultural practices.

Matutakiaga: Embodying contextual intelligence

Matutakiaga, emphasises connectedness, relational thinking and systems evolution. It highlights the web of relationships among individuals, families, villages and ecosystems, embodying a deep awareness of how actions impact these interconnections. This concept aligns with Mayo and Nohria's ideas on contextual intelligence by demonstrating the importance of understanding and navigating the zeitgeist, its systems and relationships. In Niuean culture, Matutakiaga encourages a holistic approach, ensuring that the village and its decisions are informed by a comprehensive understanding of interconnectedness and collective well-being.

Matohiaga: Integrating Historical and Future Contexts

Matohiaga, focuses on ancestry and the integration of past, present and future contexts. It clearly outlines the significance of ancestral wisdom and its role in guiding current practices and future directions. By incorporating lessons from the past and insights into potential future impacts, Matohiaga enhances contextual intelligence in a way that aligns with Mayo and Nohria’s emphasis on adapting to the zeitgeist. This genealogical perspective ensures that modern decisions are informed by historical insights and long-term implications, adding depth to the understanding and application of contextual intelligence.

Tupuna to Mokopuna Framework: A long-term perspective

One distinctive aspect of Niuean culture that reinforces contextual intelligence is the emphasis on long-term thinking and planning. The Tupuna to Mokopuna Framework, designed by Falalahemotu and Makapatama, co-founders and leveki (guardians and stewards) of FakaFekauaga Catalyst, exemplifies this approach. This framework guides how decisions should consider varying time horizons, from immediate to future generations. It underscores the importance of maintaining a multi-generational perspective, ensuring that decisions benefit both current and future members of the community.

By focusing on long-term planning and multi-generational impact, the Tupuna to Mokopuna Framework illustrates the depth of contextual intelligence embedded in Fakafekauaga. This approach not only ensures that decisions are well-informed but also promotes sustainable and culturally grounded practices.

Integrating Fakafekauaga with modern paradigms

Fakafekauaga, with its focus on holistic stewardship and deep contextual awareness through Matutakiaga and Matohiaga, enriches the traditional leadership paradigms proposed by Mayo and Nohria. While their frameworks of entrepreneur, manager and leader provide valuable insights, Fakafekauaga introduces additional dimensions that enhance the understanding of contextual intelligence:

• Holistic understanding: Matutakiaga’s emphasis on interconnectedness and systems thinking offers a more comprehensive view of contextual intelligence, highlighting the importance of relational aspects and collective well-being.

• Historical continuity: The genealogical perspective of Matohiaga adds a layer of historical and future-oriented insight, ensuring that decisions are informed by ancestral wisdom and long-term considerations.

• Long-term perspective: The Tupuna to Mokopuna Framework, developed by Falalahemotu and Makapatama, emphasises the importance of considering the broader time horizons in decision-making, integrating immediate, medium and long-term impacts.

Integrating these Niuean concepts into the discussion of contextual intelligence, Fakafekauaga not only complements but also extends the insights offered by modern leadership paradigms. It provides a culturally grounded approach that enhances the understanding and application of leadership in today’s complex and interconnected world.

Comparative Analysis with Existing Archetypes

To fully appreciate the significance of Fakafekauaga as a transformative paradigm, it is essential to compare it with established archetypes that have historically shaped leadership and management practices. By examining how Fakafekauaga contrasts with and complements these traditional models—entrepreneur, manager and leader—we can gain a clearer understanding of its unique contributions and relevance in addressing contemporary challenges. This comparative analysis highlights the strengths and limitations of each archetype, illustrating how Fakafekauaga offers a holistic and integrated approach that addresses the complexities of today’s world.

1. Entrepreneur: visionary disruptor vs. holistic steward

• Entrepreneur: Entrepreneurs are innovators who thrive on identifying new opportunities and creating disruptive solutions. They often focus on growth, scalability and competitive advantage. Their approach is typically driven by personal vision and market potential.

• Fakafekauaga: Fakafekauaga contrasts with the entrepreneur's individualistic focus by emphasising holistic stewardship and collective well-being. While entrepreneurs drive change through innovation, Fakafekauaga focuses on interconnectedness and sustainability. It recognises that every action impacts the collective—family, village and environment.

Scenario: An entrepreneur might develop a ground-breaking renewable energy technology. While this technology could reduce environmental impact, Fakafekauaga would ensure that its development and deployment align with the core human characteristics of Matutakiaga (connectedness) and Fakalofa (compassion), fostering village-community involvement and safeguarding local ecosystems. This approach not only addresses technological needs but also integrates village-community values and environmental stewardship, ensuring that the innovation serves the greater good.

2. Manager: efficiency and execution vs. relational and contextual awareness

• Manager: Managers are skilled at organising resources, optimising processes and achieving efficiency. Their focus is on stability, productivity and meeting organisational objectives through structured control and oversight.

• Fakafekauaga: Fakafekauaga expands beyond operational efficiency by incorporating relational and contextual awareness. While managers streamline processes, Fakafekauaga emphasises the importance of relationships, values-based living (Mahuiga) and environmental stewardship (Matutakiaga). This perspective ensures that decisions not only improve productivity but also consider the well-being of people and the environment.

Scenario: In implementing a new operational system, a manager might focus on efficiency and cost savings. Fakafekauaga would approach the system’s implementation by considering its impact on employees’ well-being, village-community relations and environmental sustainability. For example, it would involve village-community feedback (Matutakiaga) and ensure that the system supports the collective good, aligning with Fakalofa by nurturing a supportive work environment and contributing to broader village-community and environmental goals.

3. Leader: transformational influence vs. Servantship

• Leader: Leaders are known for their ability to inspire and guide organisations through change. They focus on vision, strategy and influencing others to achieve goals. Their role often involves motivating and aligning teams with a shared vision.

• Fakafekauaga: Fakafekauaga, with its emphasis on service, prioritises serving others, fostering empathy (Fakalofa) and ensuring that leadership decisions benefit the collective. Unlike traditional leaders who may focus on vision and strategic goals, Fakafekauaga extends this to also centring on service and the well-being of all stakeholders.

Scenario: A traditional leader might spearhead a major organisational change by inspiring and motivating their team. In contrast, Fakafekauaga would ensure that the change process is inclusive and considers the needs of all stakeholders. They would incorporate the core human characteristics of Fakalofa by demonstrating compassion and empathy and involve the village-community in decision-making processes, ensuring that the change aligns with shared values and benefits all involved parties.

Synthesis of comparative analysis

The comparative analysis of Fakafekauaga with traditional archetypes—entrepreneur, manager and leader—reveals its unique contribution to modern contexts. While each traditional archetype excels in specific areas, Fakafekauaga offers a more integrated approach that addresses contemporary challenges in a holistic manner.

"While traditional archetypes—entrepreneur, manager and leader—excel in their respective domains of innovation, efficiency and influence, Fakafekauaga transcends these boundaries by integrating holistic stewardship, relational awareness and servantship. It bridges the gap between individual ambition and collective well-being, offering a transformative paradigm that addresses the complexities of modern challenges through a lens of interconnectedness and compassion."

Entrepreneurs focus on innovation and market potential, driving change through disruptive solutions. Fakafekauaga complements this by incorporating values of holistic stewardship and collective well-being. It ensures that technological advancements and innovations are aligned with village-community values and environmental sustainability, fostering a more inclusive and responsible approach to progress.

Managers are adept at optimising processes and achieving efficiency, emphasising stability and productivity. Fakafekauaga expands on this by integrating relational and contextual awareness into decision-making. It prioritises the well-being of people and the environment, advocating for decisions that not only enhance operational effectiveness but also support broader societal and ecological goals.

Leaders are known for their transformational influence and strategic vision, guiding organisations through change. Fakafekauaga extends traditional leadership by emphasising servantship and empathy. It focuses on inclusivity and the collective good, ensuring that leadership decisions are made with compassion and village-community involvement at the forefront.

Overall, Fakafekauaga provides a comprehensive framework that bridges gaps left by traditional archetypes. By integrating village-community-centred values and a focus on interconnectedness, it offers a robust approach to addressing the complexities of modern challenges, enriching the current understanding of leadership and management practices.

Fakafekauaga: A Time-Tested Village Philosophy Beyond Empirical Measures

The concept of Fakafekauaga, deeply rooted in Niuean culture, represents more than just a traditional philosophy; it embodies a time-tested village ethos that has been practiced, tested and refined over centuries. This contrasts sharply with Western empirical methods, which often rely on controlled samples and quantifiable data to validate theories. While these empirical approaches have their merit, they can sometimes overlook the significant, culturally embedded wisdom that Fakafekauaga offers.

Historical resilience and cultural depth

Fakafekauaga is not a static ideology but a dynamic village philosophy that has evolved through continuous practice and adaptation within the Niuean context. For generations, this philosophy has been the rock of village life, guiding interpersonal relationships, environmental stewardship and collective well-being. Its core human characteristics have been honed through lived experience, collective wisdom and oral traditions passed down through stories and songs. For example, my grandfather could recount up to seven previous generations, vividly describing our way of life—how we lived before Christianity, how we moved from one village to another and how our village-societal structures adapted over time.

Central to these narratives were stories of living in harmony with one another, with the land, the sea and the broader environment. A powerful and consistent message across generations has been the duty of stewardship—each generation's responsibility to protect the land and sea for our children and for generations to come. This enduring commitment to environmental stewardship and communal care emphasises that succession and survival were not struggles but given realities, woven into the fabric of everyday life. This historical depth, supported by oral and verbal transference, offers a richness and contextual accuracy that empirical studies, often constrained by their specific samples and settings, may not fully capture.

Empirical evidence vs. cultural endurance

Western empirical methods often emphasise reproducibility and statistical validation, providing insights based on data gathered from specific samples. While these methods are valuable, they sometimes fail to account for the broader, more nuanced aspects of human behaviour and societal values that are deeply ingrained in cultures like Niuean. Fakafekauaga, with its long-standing practice, cultural integration and transference through generations, presents a holistic view of servantship and village-community dynamics that empirical studies might miss. The oral tradition, embedded in song and storytelling, serves as an ongoing calibration mechanism for the village-community, ensuring that the philosophy remains relevant and responsive to new realities.

The longitudinal test of time

One of the most compelling strengths of Fakafekauaga is its longitudinal validity. Unlike empirical studies that may only reflect contemporary or localised phenomena, Fakafekauaga has been continuously tested through generations. Its core human characteristics have been subjected to the realities of daily life, adapting to new challenges while preserving core values. This ongoing process of adaptation is mirrored in the oral narratives and family-village-communal songs, which evolve alongside the philosophy itself. Stories like those passed down from my grandfather—emphasising generational stewardship and environmental protection—have continuously reinforced the importance of maintaining harmony with the land and sea for the sake of future generations. This gives Fakafekauaga a level of validation that goes beyond short-term empirical findings, showcasing a philosophy that has consistently contributed to the well-being and cohesion of Niuean village life and society.

Incorporating cultural wisdom into modern paradigms

In the face of modern challenges such as climate change, social inequity and village-community fragmentation, the insights offered by Fakafekauaga can either complement and enhance contemporary leadership and organisational theories or stand alone as a philosophy, practice and model has withstand the tests of time. While empirical data is invaluable for understanding specific phenomena, the holistic and culturally rich perspective of Fakafekauaga provides a deeper understanding of how interconnectedness, values-based living and village-communal stewardship can address these complex issues.

Embracing indigenous wisdom and narrative strength

In navigating the intersection of Fakafekauaga and Western academic frameworks, I encountered a fundamental realisation: attempting to apply a century-old, culturally rich philosophy like Fakafekauaga to a Western university setting often leads to a misalignment. My experience during my Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) program highlighted this issue. Despite my aim to introduce Fakafekauaga as a standalone philosophy capable of transforming current paradigms and help from my supervisors, I faced persistent challenges due to Western-centric frameworks.

From my perspective, the academic institutional process seemed narrowly designed to eventually guide my thinking and approach to fit Fakafekauaga into predefined leadership models, despite my insistence that Fakafekauaga transcends traditional leadership paradigms. This recurring insistence revealed a critical flaw: The Western framework appeared oriented towards dismantling and reconfiguring a philosophy that has been a dynamic and effective part of Niuean life for centuries through a Western-centric lens. The methodologies used to assess its validity—such as focus groups and empirical studies—were ill-suited to a philosophy deeply rooted in cultural practices and oral traditions, at least in my humble view.

Fakafekauaga has already proven its efficacy and relevance through generations of practice and adaptation. It is a living, evolving philosophy that guides interpersonal relationships, environmental stewardship and village-community well-being. Its philosophy and core human characteristic have been validated over centuries of real-world application, not through academic studies but through continuous, lived experience within the Niuean village context.

This experience made it clear that the value of Fakafekauaga lies not in conforming to Western academic criteria but in its inherent ability to offer practical and culturally resonant insights. Attempting to validate such a philosophy through Western methods risks undermining its essence and highlights a broader issue within academic settings: the tendency to impose external frameworks on indigenous knowledge systems rather than appreciating their intrinsic value and effectiveness.

Ultimately, Fakafekauaga’s strength lies in its deep cultural roots and proven adaptability over time. This philosophical framework, with its emphasis on interconnectedness, values-based living and village-communal stewardship, offers a powerful alternative to Western-centric approaches. By recognising and honouring its contributions on its own terms, rather than through the lens of traditional academic validation, we embrace a richer, more inclusive understanding of leadership, systems thinking and community resilience.

Integrating the time-tested philosophy of Fakafekauaga with modern approaches allows people, organisations and village communities to benefit from a more comprehensive framework that honors both empirical rigor and cultural wisdom. This synthesis not only enriches our understanding of effective leadership but also offers practical solutions that resonate with the core values of diverse village communities.

Theoretical Frameworks and Literature Supporting Fakafekauaga

To support Fakafekauaga as a foundational concept for addressing modern challenges, several theoretical frameworks and literature offer valuable insights that complement and enrich its Five Core Human Characteristics. However, it is essential to note that, as far as we know, apart from Pasifika nations situated in the great Te Moana Nui a Kiwa (Pacific Ocean), there isn’t an extensive body of work within leadership and management literature that directly references Fakafekauaga-servantship as a distinct, standalone archetype. The few references that do exist are often interwoven under the guise of broader leadership paradigms. This gap in the existing scholarship is precisely why we are deliberately introducing Fakafekauaga as a standalone philosophy, theory and archetype—a unique contribution to global conversations on leadership and systems thinking.

Servant leadership and village-community-centric leadership

Robert K. Greenleaf's seminal essay, The Servant as Leader (1970), emphasises the importance of serving others and placing village-community well-being at the heart of leadership practices. In Greenleaf’s model, the process begins with a desire to serve others, which over time may naturally evolve into a desire to lead. This transformation is driven by a conscious choice to lead based on the foundation of service. While the servant leader’s primary motivation is to serve, leadership emerges as a recognised role for ensuring the well-being of others, often within a hierarchical structure.

In contrast, Fakafekauaga, a Niuean village philosophy, does not emphasise leadership or the desire to become a leader. Instead, Fakafekauaga is a collectivist, egalitarian worldview where the highest form of contribution is to serve, and leadership is not a coveted or recognised role in the same way it is in more hierarchical, individualistic models. In the Fakafekauaga framework, the pinnacle of achievement is service, not leadership, and there is a natural absence of the desire to lead because this notion is foreign to the Niuean egalitarian society. Leadership as a distinct concept does not align with Fakafekauaga’s collectivist values, where all members of the village-community contribute equally to the collective well-being.

While Greenleaf’s philosophy aligns with aspects of Fakafekauaga, particularly in its focus on selfless service and village-community well-being, Fakafekauaga is not a leadership model and extends beyond traditional leadership paradigms.

• Integration with Fakafekauaga: Fakafekauaga’s core human characteristic of Mahuiga (Values-based living) and Fakalofa (Compassion and Empathy) reflects Greenleaf’s emphasis on empathy and compassion, but it is not a leadership style. Instead, it is a broader cultural philosophy that prioritises collective well-being and interconnectedness over individual or hierarchical gains.

• Application: Practitioners of Fakafekauaga will not only serve but actively engage with the village-community to understand and address their needs, aligning with Greenleaf’s idea that leaders should act with empathy and dedication to others’ growth. However, unlike servant leadership, Fakafekauaga does not position leadership as an endpoint of service, but rather holds that service itself is the highest form of contribution.

Collective leadership models

In Paradigm Warriors (2020), Spiller et al. explore collective leadership from an Indigenous Māori perspective, emphasising shared leadership and community-centred approaches. Fakafekauaga resonates with these ideas by stressing collective action and village-communal values, but it is not a leadership model.

• Integration with Fakafekauaga: The core human characteristic of Matutakiaga (Interconnectedness and Thinking as a System) supports the notion of collectivism, yet Fakafekauaga’s application extends beyond traditional leadership roles to encompass a new and holistic way of living and interacting within a village-community and nature.

• Application: Practicing Fakafekauaga means adopting a collaborative approach, integrating village-community feedback and engaging in collective problem-solving, aligning with the values of collectivism.

Systems thinking

Peter M. Senge’s The Fifth Discipline (1990) discusses systems thinking, emphasising the interconnectedness of various elements within a system. Senge advocates for understanding systems as a network of interrelated parts, highlighting the importance of seeing the whole system to grasp its complexity and interactions.

• Integration with Fakafekauaga: Fakafekauaga’s core human characteristic of Matutakiaga (Interconnectedness and Thinking as a System) offers a distinct perspective. Instead of breaking down systems into individual components, Fakafekauaga views systems as a harmonious whole where each element is intrinsically linked. This approach focuses on understanding the system as a unified entity, rather than dissecting it into separate parts.

• Application: Western Systems Thinking typically involves analysing individual components of a system to understand its overall complexity and interactions. This method often entails examining parts separately to piece together a comprehensive view of the whole system. Fakafekauaga’s Thinking as a System embraces a holistic view of the system, recognising it as an interconnected, living entity. This approach avoids compartmentalisation and emphasises the overall harmony and balance within the system, integrating all elements into a cohesive understanding.

Systems thinking for social change

David Peter Stroh's Systems Thinking for Social Change (2015) provides practical insights into using systems thinking to address complex social issues. Fakafekauaga’s core human characteristics, such as Fakamokoi (Reciprocity) and Mahuiga (Values-Based Living), align with this approach but reflect a culturally rooted framework rather than a mere strategy for social change.

• Integration with Fakafekauaga: Fakafekauaga’s core human characteristics offer a culturally embedded approach to systemic issues, integrating reciprocal relationships and values-based living as part of a broader philosophy that goes beyond practical applications to address social change.

• Application: Fakafekauaga-informed people, organisations and village-communities will approach social change initiatives by integrating reciprocal relationships and values-based approaches, aligning with Stroh’s emphasis on addressing systemic issues through a holistic lens.

Unique contribution of Fakafekauaga

While various theoretical frameworks offer valuable insights into leadership and systems thinking, Fakafekauaga presents a distinctive contribution by integrating cultural and holistic dimensions that extend beyond traditional paradigms.

• Servantship's broader relevance: Service has been on the peripheral for a long time but is often talked about or related to religious settings and NGOs but is too often not considered in organisational settings where it is most needed. While it would be fair to say that Fakafekauga-servantship has connections to these settings, the value add here is its introduction to businesses, organisations and general mainstream thinking. Fakafekauaga presents an opportunity to broaden the application of servantship beyond traditional domains, embedding it into the core operations of organisations and addressing the urgent need for collective responsibility in modern workplaces and societies.

• Cultural embeddedness: Fakafekauaga is deeply rooted in Niuean culture and philosophy, reflecting a unique village-based worldview. Unlike Western leadership models that often focus on individual achievement or organisational hierarchy, Fakafekauaga emphasises interconnectedness and collectivist and village-communal values. This cultural embeddedness provides a framework that prioritises collective well-being, mutual respect and stewardship of both human and environmental resources. Unlike Greenleaf’s Servant Leadership, which focuses on the leader's role in serving others, Fakafekauaga encompasses a broader cultural ethos where service is interwoven with daily life, spirituality and ancestral wisdom.

• Holistic approach: Fakafekauaga’s core human characteristics, such as Matutakiaga (Thinking as a System) and Mahuiga (Values-Based Living), offer a holistic approach that addresses complex interrelationships within families, village-communities and the environment. Unlike traditional frameworks that may compartmentalise leadership or systems thinking, Fakafekauaga integrates these aspects into a unified cultural philosophy. This approach ensures that decisions and actions align with the broader context of interconnectedness and sustainability.

• Emphasis on ancestral wisdom: The core human characteristic of Matohiaga (Genealogy) in Fakafekauaga highlights the significance of honouring ancestral knowledge and traditions. This emphasis on historical continuity and respect for the past provides a grounding that complements modern theories like systems thinking and collective leadership. Fakafekauaga incorporates ancestral wisdom as a guiding principle, offering a deeper understanding of long-term relationships and sustainability.

• Broader cultural impact: Fakafekauaga extends beyond individual or organisational frameworks to influence broader societal and cultural practices. Its core human characteristics guide how individuals and village-communities interact, make decisions and address challenges. This broader impact is reflected in the way Fakafekauaga shapes village-communal behaviour and social norms, offering a comprehensive approach to social change that is culturally resonant and contextually relevant.

• Practical integration: In practical terms, Fakafekauaga informs not only leadership practices but also village-community engagement, environmental stewardship and cultural preservation. Its core human characteristics guide practitioners to integrate service, empathy, reciprocity and interconnectedness into everyday actions and decisions. This practical integration ensures that the values of Fakafekauaga are lived and experienced in tangible ways, influencing how people and organisations navigate contemporary challenges.

Additionally, we have explored a comparative analysis of Fakafekauaga with Western-centric systems thinking in our paper titled "Western Systems Thinking and Indigenous Thinking – Fakafekauaga". For a detailed exploration of how Fakafekauaga contrasts with and complements Western systems thinking, please visit our website at FakafekauagaCatalyst.com.

Contextualising Fakafekauaga in Modern Challenges

Social inequity

Fakafekauaga's emphasis on Matutakiaga (interconnectedness) and Mahuiga (values-based living) addresses social inequities by promoting an understanding of interconnectedness and valuing every individual's contribution to the collective. This perspective challenges the individualistic approach prevalent in many modern systems that often exacerbate inequalities. By growing a culture of inclusivity and respect, Fakafekauaga encourages equitable treatment and the recognition of diverse voices, thus working towards a more just society. The core human characteristics of Mahuiga also advocate for humility and collectivism, which can dismantle hierarchies that perpetuate inequality and create opportunities for more equitable distribution of resources and opportunities.

Climate change

Fakafekauaga's core human characteristic of Matutakiaga (interconnectedness) grounds the importance of viewing humans as integral participants within the ecosystem rather than separate from it. This perspective nurtures a deep sense of environmental stewardship, aligning closely with contemporary needs for sustainable practices. By embodying the role of Leveki (stewards), individuals and village-communities guided by Fakafekauaga are more likely to prioritise the health of the planet and engage in practices that mitigate climate change. The core human characteristic of Fakalofa (love, compassion, empathy) further reinforces this by instilling a sense of duty to protect and nurture the environment out of respect and love for future generations.

Village-Community Fragmentation

Fakafekauaga's core human characteristics address village-community fragmentation through its focus on Mahuiga (values-based living) and Fakalofa (love, compassion, empathy). Mahuiga encourages individuals to live with humility and respect, fostering strong, cohesive village-communities where collaborative efforts are prioritised over individual gains. Fakalofa promotes a nurturing and supportive approach to relationships, which can help bridge divides and rebuild trust among fragmented village-communities. The practice of Fakamokoi (reciprocity) ensures that support and kindness are remembered and reciprocated, creating a resilient network of mutual aid and solidarity.

How Fakafekauaga provides solutions to modern challenges

Promoting collective action

• Fakafekauaga emphasises the collective over the individual, encouraging village-communities to work together to address global challenges. This collective mindset fosters cooperation and shared responsibility, essential for tackling complex issues such as climate change and social inequity.

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Encouraging sustainable living

• The philosophy's focus on Matutakiaga (interconnectedness) leads to a profound respect for the environment. It supports sustainable practices and holistic approaches to resource management, aligning with global efforts to combat environmental degradation.

  
  

Fostering empathy and compassion

• Fakalofa (love, compassion, empathy) underpins a worldview that values every individual's well-being. This empathy drives initiatives that address social inequities and foster supportive village-communities, making it a powerful antidote to the divisiveness and alienation often seen in modern societies.

Instilling responsibility and reciprocity

• Fakamokoi (reciprocity) encourages a cycle of giving and receiving that strengthens village-community bonds and ensures that support is not only given but also acknowledged and valued. This core human characteristic nurtures a culture of mutual aid and long-term commitment to collective well-being.

Honouring ancestral wisdom

• Matohiaga (genealogy) highlights the importance of ancestral knowledge and traditions, which can offer valuable insights and practices for contemporary issues. By integrating traditional wisdom with modern approaches, Fakafekauaga provides a rich foundation for innovative solutions to current global challenges.

Fakafekauaga’s Five Core Human Characteristics offer a unique and valuable perspective on addressing modern challenges. By emphasising interconnectedness, values-based living, love, compassion, reciprocity and ancestral wisdom, this village philosophy provides a comprehensive framework for fostering sustainable and equitable solutions in a rapidly changing world.

The New Era of Fakafekauaga - Servantship

As we confront the complexities of the modern world, the concept of Fakafekauaga emerges as a transformative paradigm. Deeply rooted in Niuean culture and way of life, Fakafekauaga extends beyond traditional leadership archetypes to embody a holistic approach that integrates servantship, interconnectedness and stewardship of both human and environmental resources. This philosophy introduces a new era of understanding leadership, management, entrepreneurship and organisational dynamics, reflecting a shift from conventional models towards a more inclusive and collective framework.

Fakafekauaga, deeply ingrained in the village-communal values of Niuean society, offers a refreshing perspective that transcends the limitations of the established archetypes of entrepreneur, manager and leader. These traditional roles—while historically significant—often fall short when addressing the multifaceted challenges of today’s world, such as social inequity, climate change and environmental degradation. The essence of Fakafekauaga lies in its ability to address these challenges through a comprehensive and integrative approach.

At its core, Fakafekauaga is defined by Five Core Human Characteristics:

1. Matutakiaga - interconnectedness, relational, thinking as a system & systems evolution: Emphasising the importance of relational dynamics and stewardship, Matutakiaga calls for a deep understanding of interconnectedness among people, village-communities and ecosystems. It encourages a thinking as a system approach that recognises the delicate balance between all elements of the environment and society.

   
   

2. Mahuiga - values-based, ancestral knowledge and lived experience: Rooted in humility, respect and collaboration, Mahuiga reflects a values-based approach that fosters harmonious living within village-communities. It emphasises the importance of collective well-being and the integration of ancestral wisdom into contemporary practices.

   
   

3. Fakalofa - love, compassion and empathy: Central to Fakafekauaga is the core human characteristic of Fakalofa, which embodies love, compassion and empathy. This characteristic drive selfless service and village-communal upliftment, promoting a sustainable and supportive environment for all.

   
   

4. Fakamokoi - reciprocity- give and forget but receive and remember always: Grounded in the spirit of generosity, Fakamokoi highlights the importance of reciprocal relationships. It underscores the notion of giving and receiving with a sense of responsibility towards both human village-communities and the natural world.

   
   

5. Matohiaga - genealogy - contextualised – past, present and future: This characteristic honour the wisdom of ancestors and integrates it into current practices. It reflects an understanding of the interconnectedness across generations and the importance of preserving cultural heritage for future generations.

Fakafekauaga offers a distinctive contribution compared to traditional archetypes:

• Entrepreneur vs. holistic steward: While entrepreneurs drive innovation and seek new opportunities, Fakafekauaga emphasises holistic stewardship and collective well-being. It ensures that advancements align with village-community values and environmental sustainability, fostering a more inclusive approach to progress.

• Manager vs. relational awareness: Managers focus on efficiency and productivity, whereas Fakafekauaga integrates relational and contextual awareness. It prioritises the well-being of people and the environment, advocating for decisions that support broader societal and ecological goals.

• Leader vs. Servantship: Traditional leaders inspire and guide organisations through change, but Fakafekauaga extends this by centring on servantship. It emphasises inclusivity, empathy and village-community involvement, ensuring that leadership decisions benefit all stakeholders.

Incorporating Fakafekauaga into contemporary paradigms provides a richer and more holistic framework for addressing modern challenges. By bridging the gaps left by traditional models and integrating village-community-centred values and a focus on interconnectedness, Fakafekauaga offers a robust approach to leadership and organisational practices.  This new era of Fakafekauaga represents a shift towards a more integrated and comprehensive understanding of leadership and service. It invites us to reimagine how we navigate the complexities of our world, honouring both empirical rigor and cultural wisdom. By embracing this philosophy, we can develop more effective and sustainable solutions that resonate with the core values of diverse village-communities and contribute to the greater good of all.

Fakaotiaga - Conclusion

In the dynamic landscape of business leadership, understanding the zeitgeist is paramount to success. The insights gleaned from Mayo and Nohria's exploration of Zeitgeist Leadership provide invaluable guidance for modern leaders navigating the complexities of today's business environment. By aligning leadership approaches with the prevailing spirit of the times, leaders can adapt and thrive amidst uncertainty and change.

Fakafekauaga represents more than just a cultural philosophy; it embodies a transformative leadership archetype that offers a profound solution to modern complexities. As the zeitgeist of our era demands a departure from traditional models of leadership, Fakafekauaga provides a time-tested framework rooted in Niuean culture that is both holistic and adaptive.

In a world increasingly characterised by social inequity, environmental degradation and village-community fragmentation, Fakafekauaga’s core human characteristics offer a refreshing and vital perspective. Its core tenets—Matutakiaga (interconnectedness), Mahuiga (values-based living), Fakalofa (compassion), Fakamokoi (reciprocity) and Matohiaga (genealogy)—provide a comprehensive approach to leadership that integrates respect for both people and the planet. Unlike Western empirical methods, which may sometimes overlook the depth of cultural wisdom, Fakafekauaga’s enduring relevance and resilience offer a rich, contextualised understanding of leadership and village-community dynamics.

By embracing Fakafekauaga alongside contemporary theories, leaders can achieve a more nuanced and effective approach to addressing today’s most pressing challenges. This integration of ancient wisdom with modern practices not only enhances our understanding of leadership but also fosters sustainable solutions that resonate with diverse village-communities. As we navigate the complexities of our time, Fakafekauaga stands as a beacon of hope, guiding us toward a future where leadership is deeply rooted in service, interconnectedness and collective well-being.

Fakaue lahi mahaki - Our gratitude and acknowledgment

In our Niuean oral culture, knowledge acquisition is deeply rooted in the tradition of observing our elders engaging with one another and our environment, gathering around our matua (parents) and tupuna (elders/grandparents) and attentively listening to their stories. Through this immersive experience, we each embark on a personal journey of sense-making, extracting valuable insights from these dialogues, known as talanoa. In a departure from the rigid conventions of Western academic writing, where referencing and quoting are paramount, we intentionally embrace a more fluid approach, returning to our oral and cultural traditions. While acknowledging the great influence of specific elders or individuals who have shaped our thinking, we invite you to embark on your version of talanoa by engaging with the written works left behind by these wise sages. In simple terms, read them yourselves or seek out their audience to listen and derive your own meaning. By doing so, as we have done, you can forge a connection with their wisdom, assimilate knowledge and craft your own unique interpretations. We believe this process will empower you to cultivate a deep understanding, encapsulating the essence of talanoa while fostering an appreciation for the diverse perspectives available to us in our villages, communities, cities and worldwide. And so, we offer heartfelt gratitude and deep appreciation in humble tribute to the revered elders and invaluable individuals below who have influenced our emotional and intellectual landscape, instilling wisdom and guiding our pens to express our thoughts and interpretations of their multi-layered insights:

• First and foremost – all of our magafaoa (families) and elders (matua/tupuna).

• Secondly – to all elders and people whose knowledge and experiences we have referenced throughout this reflection – fakaue lahi mahaki.

Join Us at FakaFekauaga Catalyst

At FakaFekauaga Catalyst, we’re not just introducing a new concept—we’re leading a transformative movement that redefines how we serve, connect and sustain our world. By embracing Fakafekauaga philosophy and its Five Core Human Characteristics, we champion a holistic approach rooted in interconnectedness, compassion, reciprocity and ancestral wisdom.

Why Join Us?

• Innovative approach: Be at the forefront of applying a century-old, well-tested and dynamically adaptable Fakafekauaga philosophy in organisational practices.

• Meaningful impact: Contribute to initiatives that tackle critical issues such as social equity, climate change and poverty with a focus on serving humanity and the planet.

• Collaborative network: Connect with a community of like-minded individuals and organisations dedicated to holistic, values-driven service.

• Sustainable solutions: Engage in practices that ensure long-term well-being through balanced stewardship of village-communities and the environment.

Join us in shaping a future where service is synonymous with interconnectedness and sustainability. Embrace the new era of Fakafekauaga and be a catalyst for positive change.

Transform the way we serve, connect and sustain our world with FakaFekauaga Catalyst (FFC).

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